A corpus is a large collection of written and/or spoken material collected to show the state of a language. Corpora can be extremely useful tools in language teaching as they help both the teacher and the learner to understand exactly how language is currently being used. They can also be excellent resources when it comes to developing materials. A number of corpora are available for free online. Among the best are: Collins Cobuild, the British National Corpus and the Corpus of Contemporary American English.

Teachers and researchers often create their own corpora, focusing on a particular area of language or source e.g. a set of newspapers, recordings taken at conferences or a collection of legal texts. One way of doing this is to import your own texts into a corpus tool, such as the popular WordSmith Tools. Another way is to create a search engine that limits searches to trusted websites at which you can be certain to find useful material websites. The Rollyo website lets you do this, and below you can find the link to the Legal English Corpus search engine that Matt created to help our research into the coursebook Introduction to International Legal English and the TransLegal Learner’s Dictionary of Law. They should be useful to lawyers in finding out more about the way that language is used and for teachers wanting to create materials that reflect contemporary Legal English.

For an excellent introduction to corpora and their use in English language teaching and learning, see http://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?docid=155104

Check out Legal Corpus Search — a Rollyo search engine — created by Matt Firth when researching current usage of Legal English terms and phrases.

For example:
The client called three times.
Do not put the matter off any longer.

2. Capitalize the first word of a sentence within sentence (even if it is not within quotation marks).

For example:
The arbitrator said, “It is time to consider settling the case.”
The issue on appeal was, Was there ever a contract?

3. Capitalize all words in titles and headings with the exception of articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (in, on, of), and conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet).

For example:
Minutes of Meeting
Some Thoughts on the New Dutch Tax Regime
Letter of Intent
Memorandum Regarding Environmental Liability and Clean Up Obligation

4. Capitalise the proper (formal) names of persons, places, and things.

For example:
George Washington was the first President of the United States
The Nobel Prize is awarded at the Concert House.

Note: In legal writing, it is common to use plaintiff or defendant as titles for the litigants, Thus, if the titles are used without the name, or where the title is not preceded by the word “the”, you may capitalize the title.

5. Capitalize all academic and religious titles.

For example:
Doctor Lafave
Professor Bellman
Father McNally

6. Capitalize all titles of civil, military, professional or noble rank and honor when they come before a name.

For example:
Managing Director Alfred Malmquist
Justice of the Court Serena Cortez
Chairman Man

Note: Titles are not capitalized when used generically, i.e. without the name.

For example:
The presidents of five countries will attend the conference.

7. Capitalize all government titles and titles of nobility when referring to definite persons.

For example:
the Minister of Justice
the Prime Minister
the Bishop of Uppsala
the Prince of Wales

8. Capitalize titles of distinction following a name or where used in place of a name.(However, there is a growing tendency not to capitalize titles appearing after a name).

For example:
Marie Vanderwinkle, Chairman of the Board of Directors
the Chief Executive Officer

9. Capitalize the names of the days of the week, months of the year, and holidays.

For example:
The trial is set for the first Monday in September.

10. Capitalise academic degrees

For example:
Robin Fox, Ph.D.
Harold von Brinkelworth, Master of Economics

11. Capitalize historical periods and occurrences.<

For example:
The Tudor Era brought great changes to European law.
The Gulf Wars forever altered transatlantic relations.

12. Capitalize the names of members of athletic, national, political, religious, racial, and social groups.

For example:
The Labour Party made some headway in the last election.
Three Crowns is favored to win the hockey championship.

13. Capitalize compass directions only when they refer to a region or place.

For example:
Many people are immigrating to Northern Europe.

However:
Uppsala is north of Stockholm.

14. Capitalize adjectives that are formed from names that are capitalized.

For example:
The Italian people do not favor an increase in taxes.
The book is about Renaissance law.

15. Capitalize the first word of complimentary closing in correspondence.

For example:
Faithfully
Sincerely yours
Yours truly

For example:

• isn’t
• couldn’t
• weren’t

Note: Stylistically, the use of contractions is not recommended for formal writing.

The apostrophe is also used to show the omission of part of a date.

For example: The Chairman will be up for re-elction in ’06. (instead of 2006)

However, do not use an apostrophe to show the exclusion of letter in an abbreviation.

For example:

• Dept. (department)
• No. (number)

2) Use the apostrophe to designate possession or ownership. Place the apostrophe
before the “s” to show possession or ownership by one person.

For example: My client’s case
My client’s cases (one client has more than one case)

3) To designate possession or ownership by more than one person, make the noun plural
first. Then immediately use the apostrophe.

For example:

• one client’s case
• two clients’ cases
• one actress’s contract
• two actresses’ contracts
• one child’s guardian
• two children’s guardians

However, when using proper nouns (formal names) ending in “s” or an “s” sound, you may exclude the “s” that would normally follow the apostrophe.

Singular possession or ownership

• Mercedes-Benz’ trademark
• Mercedes-Benz’ trademarks

Plural possession or ownership

The Joneses’ assets

4) When a noun is formed by several words, possession or ownership is designated with ’s at the end of the word as in the example of plural possession or ownership above.

For example:

• my mother-in-law’s stock portfolio
• the Commander-in-Chief’s mandate

5) Use the apostrophe and “s” only after the second name if two people own or possess the same thing.

For example:

• Alejandro and Fransesca’s job contracts are valid for 5 years.
• Alejandro’s and Fransesca’s job contracts will be renewed next year. (separate possession or ownership)
• But: Alejandro and Fransesca’s job contracts will be renewed next year. (joint possession or ownership of more than one contract)

6) Do not use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns – hers, his, its, ours, theirs, yours.

For example:

• This client is hers, not yours.
• The company will publish its annual report next month.
• But: It’s a clear case of negligence. (The only time an apostrophe is used for “it’s” is when it is a contraction for “it is”. See Rule 1 above).

For example:

We need a lawyer who is:

1. aggressive
2. educated
3. well connected

2) Use the colon before a list in a sentence when introductory words such as for example or for instance, do not appear.

For example:

• We need a lawyer who is: aggressive, educated and well connected.
• But: We need a lawyer who is, for example, aggressive, educated and well connected.
• We will need to prove several points: presence, motive, and opportunity.
• But: We will need to prove several points such as presence, motive, and opportunity.

3) Use the colon before a quotation that is more than three typewritten lines long.

For example:

The contract has the following clause:

Legitimate persons are entitled to execute their pre-emptive subscription right until 23rd October, 1997. Pre-emptive right in this procedure is subscribing for the Shares and executing the pre-emptive right in buying the Shares subscribed, as described in this procedure, before the subscribers without pre-emptive rights.

4) In the US, it is common practice to use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter. In personal correspondence, it is common practice to use a comma after the salutation.

For example:

• Contact me next week; I will tell you what you need to know then.
• I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in
  the contract.

But: do not use a semicolon in front of words such as therefore and however if they do not connect two complete sentences or if they are used as conjunctions.

For example:

• I would, therefore, like to hear your client’s response by the end of the week.
• I would be happy, however, to provide you with copies of correspondence between my client and your client.

2) Use the semicolon to separate parts of a series when one or more of the parts contain commas.

For example:

• The Board consists of members from Stockholm, Sweden; Tokyo, Japan; and Santiago, Chile.
• The financial reports were for Q1, 2004; Q2, 2005; and Q4, 2006.

For example: The proceeds are to be divided equally among development, research, marketing, and entertainment.

Note: Omitting the comma after marketing would indicate that the marketing and entertainment share a single share of proceeds. 2) Use a comma to separate two adjectives if the word “and” can be inserted between them.

For example: He is a creative, aggressive lawyer.

3) Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names.

For example: Guido Mazza, avvocato, was not well liked by Judge Larsson.

4) When using American date styles, use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and again after the year.

For example:

• We will be meeting the contracting party on October 5, 2006, at the factory.
• Note: Modernly, in some businesses correspondence, the comma is no longer used after the year.

However, if part of the date is left out, do not use the comma after the name of the month.

For example: We will be meeting the contracting party in October 2006.

5) Use a comma to separate the city from the country and after the country.

For example: She practiced law in Copenhagen, Denmark, until she moved here.

Note: In some businesses correspondence, the comma is no longer used also after
the name of the country. 6) Use commas for statements that break up a sentence.

For example: She is, I am told, a very clever attorney.

7) When using words that join sentences – and, but, for, nor, or – the use of a comma is generally considered optional.

For example:

• We finished the research, but need to write the brief.
• We finished the research but need to write the brief.

8 ) Use the comma to separate two parts of a sentence when it will help avoid confusion.

For example: I wanted the litigation team to consist of Luc, Garcia, and Sten, and Jones refused to be part of it.

9) Use a comma to start or insert direct quotations.

For example:

• The client actually said, “I am guilty.”
• “When,” she demanded, “will you have the final draft ready?”

10) Use a comma to separate a statement from a question, even if it is not in a quotation.

For example: I can appeal, can’t I?

11) Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as accordingly, however, therefore, thus, or yes or no.

For example: Therefore, the claim was denied.

12) Do not use commas to set out a word or a phrase that is in italics or between quotation marks.

For example:

• The term ambiguous describes the pleading very well.
• But: The term, ambiguous, describes the pleading very well.